Introduction

We know very little about the events within the Aksumite Empire between the mid-4th century, following Emperor Ezana’s reign, and the early 6th century AD, when Emperor Kaleb rose to power. This scarcity of information is due to the lack of primary sources from the period and the limited number of inscriptions uncovered through excavations. Some Roman explorers did visit Aksum through the port of Adulis, but their accounts provide only brief descriptions of the empire’s state.

During this time, the Sasanian Empire was locked in continuous conflict with the Romans, creating instability along the overland trade routes through Persia into India, including regions such as the Gupta Empire, and further east. As a result, maritime trade routes through the Red Sea gained prominence. However, this shift in trade not only benefited the Aksumites but also the Himyarites, who had consolidated their power in southern Arabia. By the 4th century AD, the Himyarites had expelled nearly all Aksumite influence from the region, setting the stage for a major conflict that would erupt in the 6th century.

Meanwhile, significant events were unfolding to the north. In the mid to late 5th century, the Western Roman Empire was devastated by a series of raids from Germanic tribes, ultimately leading to its collapse and the deposition of the last emperor in 476 AD. This upheaval sent ripples across the known world. One of its lasting impacts was the migration of nine influential priests from various parts of the Roman sphere into the Aksumite Empire. These priests would immerse themselves in the local culture, history, and society, initiating what is now known as the “second evangelization” of Aksum. Today, they are remembered as the Nine Saints, whose story will be explored further in this article.

Before diving into their narrative, however, we will first examine the seven emperors of this transitional period, as documented through the continuation of Aksumite coinage.

In the late 4th to early 5th century AD, a written account emerged from a traveller to the Aksumite Empire, possibly attributed to Palladius of Galatia—the same Palladius who documented the life of Saint Moses the Ethiopian. However, this traveller only made it as far as Adulis before being forced to return due to severe illness. Interestingly, his description of the climate mirrors conditions familiar even 2,000 years later.

In his writings, he also recounts the journey of another scholar who successfully travelled to India via the Red Sea. This scholar stopped at Adulis, ventured into the Aksumite Empire, and then continued onward to India. Upon arrival, he was captured by one of the Indian kings. Before his capture, however, he noted the presence of Aksumite merchants actively trading along the Indian coastline. This observation would later be corroborated by Cosmas, a traveller who visited the region around 100 years later.

The Aksumite foothold in the northern periphery, specifically Nubia—which had been conquered by Ezana’s father around the turn of the 4th century AD and saw a rebellion suppressed by Ezana himself—remains uncertain regarding whether Aksum retained suzerainty over the region during the mid-4th to early 6th century AD. Some scholars argue that Aksumite control had waned¹, as Nubian raids into Egypt in the 4th and 5th centuries AD make no mention of Aksumite involvement². Additionally, references to kings ruling over the Blemmye (Beja) territories further provide evidence of their independence³.

Aksumite Middle Era – Emperors

Emperor Eon (~360AD)

Following Ezana, Emperor Eon ascended to the throne. Similar to his predecessor, detailed records of his reign are scarce. However, his coinage has been found as far east as Yemen in al-Madhariba⁴, suggesting that Aksum had extensive trade connections during his rule. What distinguishes Eon’s coinage is the Greek inscription “Βασιλεύς Ἀβασινῶν” (Basileus Habasinon), which translates to “King of the Habashat” or “King of the Habash”, a notable change from the king of the Aksumites, which is found in earlier coins. Archaeologists have dated Eon’s coins to right after Ezana’s reign⁵.

Theory: The transition from the use of Aksumites to Habasha was a gradual process that began during the reign of Emperor GDRT in the late 2nd century AD. Emperors of this early period claimed both titles, but this dual identity was reflected only in mainly from South Arabian Inscriptions, not in Aksumite coinage. This shift, during Emperor Eons reign, may have been influenced by the long-standing unification of the Habesha tribes & city states nearly 200 years ago. Thus by the time of Emperor Eon, stability between Habeshas were entrenched & a collective identity could be established.

Emperor Ebana (~380AD)

After the reign of Emperor Eon, it’s likely Emperor Ebana ruled the Aksumite Empire⁶. Like his predecessors, specific details about his reign are limited. However, his coinage also bears the inscription “Βασιλεύς Ἀβασινῶν,” indicating continuity in the royal title “King of the Habashat.” Ebana’s reign is notable for the large number of coins that have been discovered, making him the emperor with the most extant coinage. This abundance of coinage suggests a period of economic stability and extensive trade under his rule, it’s likely Emperor Ebana ruled for a long period of time⁷.

Emperor Mehadeyis – The Warrior(~420AD)

After the death of Emperor Ebana, Emperor MHDYS vocalized as Mehadeyis reigned⁸. This ruler is known primarily through the Aksumite coinage that features his name. The coins attributed to Mehadeyis include both Greek and Ge’ez inscriptions, interestingly besides Emperor Wazeba, no other Emperor Minted Coins using Ge’ez⁹. Particularly notable are the copper and bronze coins, which also bear the motto “In hoc signo vinces,” meaning “By this sign, you will conquer”¹⁰. This motto, which references the Christian cross, signifies the emperor’s dedication to Christianity and his warlike nature. The quote was also used previously by Emperor Constantine of the Roman Empire, and most likely drew inspiration from it.

Historical References to Mehadeyis

The Dionysiaca, a Greek text from the 5th century by the Roman Egyptian poet Nonnus, spans 48 books and centres on the life of Dionysus and his war with the Indians. Throughout the poem, Nonnus frequently mentions Ethiopians, often conflating them with Indians. He describes these Ethiopians and Indians as living east of the Nile and having black skin with curly hair¹¹.

Within this epic poem, there is a mention of a warrior king named Modaios who inhabited the Ethiopian region. Scholars believe this might reference MHDYS, a figure noted for his warlike behaviour and Christian devotion, as evidenced by his coinage¹². The inscription on his coins, “In this sign, you will conquer,” aligns with the characteristics of a warrior king deeply committed to the Christian faith mentioned in the poem.

Two excerpts from the poem are as follows:

Unique Gold Coin of Mehadeyis

A unique gold coin featuring Mehadeyis was discovered, providing a rare and detailed depiction of the emperor, not found in any other Aksumite Coinage¹³. This coin is significant for several reasons:

• Obverse Side: The obverse side of the coin features a full-body portrayal of Emperor Mehadeyis, holding a shield in one hand and a spear in the other, dressed in official regalia, likely a type of armour. His right arm is adorned with three armlets, and a crown sits atop his head, from which a ribbon falls at the back. He is depicted wearing trousers with a tail-like object attached, reminiscent of the bull’s tail worn by Ancient Egyptian Pharaohs¹⁴. The end of a short sword is visible. This imagery emphasizes his role as a warrior and conqueror.
• Reverse Side: The reverse side of the coin depicts a female figure draped in a cloth, holding a long staff topped with a cross. She is adorned with wings on both sides of her shoulders. The inscription on this side reads, “By the cross, he shall conquer.” This coin bears a striking resemblance to those minted by Theodosius II of the Eastern Roman Empire around 420 AD, suggesting that Aksumite coinage was likely inspired by this design¹⁵. This depiction highlights Emperor Mehadeyis’s religious devotion and strong connection to Christianity.Gold Coin featuring a full-body portrait of MHDYS – A New Gold Coin of King MḤDYS of Aksum, pg 278

The two sides of the coin illustrate the dual aspects of Emperor Mehadeyis’s reign: his military prowess and his commitment to the Christian faith.

Emperor Ouazebas (~450AD)

After the reign of MHDYS, the next known emperor of Aksum was Ouazebas. There is limited information about his reign, but coins bearing his name have been discovered beneath the largest Stele at Aksum. Scholars believe this might indicate that the Stele fell during his reign¹⁶. The exact circumstances of the Stele’s fall and the events during Ouazebas’s rule remain largely unknown, making his reign a subject of ongoing historical investigation. Interestingly during his reign, the reverse side of his coins had an inscription reading “May this please the people”¹⁷, possibly alluding to some sort of political strife in the empire.

Theory: During the reign of Ouazebas, the Aksumite Empire likely faced rebellions and a period of instability. The Roman Empire in the north was fracturing, especially the Western Roman Empire, as tribes from northern Germanic Europe marauded south. This undoubtedly impacted Aksumite trade, as the Romans were a crucial trade partner. The decline in trade and general political instability likely led to internal issues and rebellions within the Aksumite Empire. This is evidenced by the inscription “may this please the people” on the coinage of Emperor Ouazebas, suggesting efforts to quell discontent. One can only imagine the state of the world at this pivotal moment in history.

Emperors Neezol and Nezana (~470AD)

The reigns of Neezol and Nezana present a unique case in Aksumite history. These two names might refer to separate emperors or a dual reign. Nezana was the primary ruler, with Neezol possibly succeeding him after his death¹⁸. Coins from Nezana & Nezool have been dated to the late fifth to earth sixth centuries¹⁹. The coinage from this period provides additional clues:

• Nezana’s Coins: These coins bear the inscription “Thanks be to God,” indicating a religious devotion and the acknowledgment of divine support for his reign.
• Neezol’s Coins: These coins are inscribed with “By the Grace of God,”.

Theory: Fortunately, the Aksumite Empire survived the political turmoil that engulfed many empires in the 5th century. The inscriptions “By the grace of God” and “Thanks be to God” may allude to this period of survival and resilience.

It was during the period of Emperors Neezol or Nezana that the nine saints came from the roman empire.

Emperor Ousas (~500AD)

The last known emperor of this period is Ousas also known as Ousanas II, who reigned from the late 5th century to the early 6th century. Although detailed historical records are sparse, his coinage provides some insights. The inscriptions on his coins read “Ousas King” and “By the Grace of God,” indicating a continued emphasis on divine legitimacy²⁰. Scholars suggest that Ousas might have been the father of the famous Emperor Kaleb, with Ousas’s alternative name being Tazena in traditional records²¹.

There are three different names in the coinage: Ousas, Ousana & Ousanas. Scholars used to speculate that these were three seperate Emperors but now most think it’s one²².

The Nine Saints of the Aksumite Empire (~480AD)

Overview

The Nine Saints were influential Christian missionaries who played a pivotal role in the spread of Christianity in the Aksumite Empire. They originated from various Roman territories and were known for their anti-Chalcedonian stance, which led to their departure from the Roman Empire. Their mission was to evangelize and establish Christian monasticism within the Aksumite Empire, replacing pagan places of worship with monasteries and churches.

Chalcedonian refers to the Council of Chalcedon, convened in 451 in Chalcedon, Turkey, by several hundred Christian bishops. The primary agenda of this council was to resolve the theological debate over the nature of Jesus Christ. The council ultimately affirmed that Jesus Christ exists in two distinct natures, divine and human, a doctrine now known as the Chalcedonian definition. However, the Oriental Orthodox Churches, including the Ethiopian and Eritrean churches of today (Aksumite Churchs at the time), did not adopt this Chalcedonian doctrine, maintaining instead that Christ has one unified nature, a combination of the human and divine²³.

Origins and Arrival

According to the Gedle Argawi, a traditional text covering the Nine Saints, these revered figures arrived during the reign of Ella-Amida II, who was the sixth king after Abreha and Asbeha and the grandfather of Emperor Kaleb. Their presence spanned approximately 50 years, covering the reigns of Ella-Amida II (8 years), Tazena (12 years), Emperor Kaleb (30 years), and part of the reign of Gebre Meskel²⁴.

These nine saints came from different parts of both the Eastern & Western Roman Empire, specifically as follows²⁵:

Mission and Impact

The primary mission of the Nine Saints was to spread Christianity deeper into the Aksumite Empire. They enjoyed the support of the emperors, which facilitated their efforts and prevented acts of violence from being precipitated by dissuaded locals. The emperor visited both Aregawi and Asfe to show his support²⁶. Their tasks included replacing pagan worship centres with Christian monasteries and translating the Bible.

Even though The Aksumite empire had adopted christianity during the reign of Ezana, early in the 4th century. Most of the inhabitants likely still hadn’t converted by the time of the Nine Saints in the late 5th century to early 6th century, or at the very least large pockets of the empire still retained pagan belief systems.

Anti-Chalcedonian Stance

These nine priests were anti-Chalcedonians and were not accepted within the Roman Empire. This theological stance led them to the Aksumite Empire, where their doctrine was embraced. They brought with them their liturgical traditions and religious texts. Initially, they stayed in Bete Qetin in Aksum. However, upon the death of Ella-Amida II, his successor Tazena was not as supportive. Tradition holds that most saints did not support Tazena’s claim to the throne, leading to their separation into different areas during his reign, around 12 years after their first arrival²⁷.

Individual Contributions

Abba Aregawi

Abba Aregawi is the most well-known and venerated of the nine saints in Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity. His name, meaning “The Elder” in Ge’ez, reflects his exemplary wisdom²⁸. Aregawi founded the Church of Debre Damo, which was likely previously a centre for the worship of Arwe, the serpent king. According to tradition, Aregawi ascended the mountainous terrain to establish the church by holding onto a large serpent. Upon reaching the top, he founded the monastery of Debre Damo with the assistance of Emperor Gebre Meskel²⁹.

Tradition also holds that the monastery was initially called Debre “Hallelujah” because Aregawi exclaimed praise to God upon his miraculous ascent. Later, Emperor Gebre Meskel ordered the construction of a staircase to facilitate passage up the mountain. However, Abune Aregawi insisted that ropes be used instead, to commemorate his miraculous journey with the serpent. He told the emperor “Dahmimo,” meaning “destroy it,” referring to the staircase. Thus, the name evolved to Debre Dahimo, now known as Debre Damo³⁰.

Tradition states that on the 25th of October, God took Aregwi up to heaven, thereby bypassing death, just like Elijah and 😊Henok😊.

Abba Pentelewon

Abba Pentelewon travelled northeast of Aksum and established a religious center atop a hill, now known as Debre Pentelwon. This site, previously a pagan temple, was converted into a church under his guidance. According to tradition, Emperor Kaleb sought advice and blessings from Penetelwon before his historic war with the Himyarites. After his victorious campaign against Himyar, Kaleb abdicated the throne and became a monk with Abba Penetelwon³¹. Abba Pentelewon passed away on the 17th of October.

A specific excerpt from the tradition reads as follows:

Abba Gerima

Abba Gerima, according to tradition, hailed from a noble family in Rome and was originally named Isaac. Trained to become a priest from a young age, he received a request from Abba Pantelewon and travelled to the Aksumite Empire. There, he is said to have defeated a giant serpent named Arwe with the other nine saints, likely a metaphor for the saints dispelling ancient pagan beliefs. He then founded a monastery in Medera, east of Adwa, and became renowned for his miracles.

Among his notable miracles, Abba Gerima healed a girl possessed by evil spirits and turned a single grain of wheat into a bountiful harvest, which he used to feed the poor. While travelling secretly with Abba Pantelewon, they asked the trees and stones to move away, and they did so through the power of God. Witnessing this, Abba Pantelewon exclaimed, “Garamkani,” meaning “You have amazed me,” which led to Isaac being named Garima³².

Abba Gerima lived in Medera for twenty-three years. Today, the Abba Gerima Church, located northeast of Adwa, houses the Gerima Gospels. The Gerima Gospels are an illuminated manuscript of two volumes written in Ge’ez by Abba Garima, recent radiocarbon dating has shown that a date between 330 and 650CE has been attested. The Garima Gospels are the oldest known completely illuminated Christian manuscripts.

Abba Gerima passed away on the 24th Of June.

Here is a summary of Abba Gerima’s life³³:

Abba Afse

Abba Afse ventured to Yeha, an ancient city and the centre of pre-Aksumite culture. He converted the temple dedicated to the Sabaean gods such as Almouqah into a Christian church³⁴. The temple at Yeha now contains some of the oldest Christian artifacts in Ethiopia, such as crosses. Asfe also maintained close contact with Emperor Kaleb & Gebre Meskel. Afse died on the 6th of June.

Abba Guba

Aba Guba travelled west of Gerima. Although no known church, founded by him survives today, details remain scarce on his mission & tradition states he disappeared in a desert³⁵. His commemorated on the 6th of June.

Abba Alef

Abba Alef journeyed northeast of Aksum and founded a monastery called Debra Halle Luya. He died on the 20th of March³⁶.

Abba Yimata

Abba Yimata travelled northeast of Aksum to a location with a large vertical mountainous structure resembling a finger pointing to the sky. There, he carved a cave into the mountain and established a monastery, now known as Yemata Guh. He might have chosen this remote and elevated location to evade persecution. Today, the monastery is a church visited by locals every Sunday, despite the trek being one of the most dangerous to any church on earth. Abba Yimata died on November 8th, and tradition holds that he was buried in a rock at the mountain’s peak.³⁷.

Abba Libanos

Abba Libanos hailed from a wealthy family in Constantinople and received a thorough education in the scriptures. Tradition states that an angel transported him to Egypt, from where he journeyed to Aksum. He then ventured north, crossing the Marib River into present-day Eritrea, arriving at a place known as Metai. There, he founded a monastery and translated the Gospel of Matthew from Greek to Ge’ez.

Abba Libanos was renowned for his miraculous ability to make water sprout from the ground using his cane. However, he reportedly had a falling out with other priests, particularly Abba Elias. This conflict led Libanos to self-isolate for several years. One day, he reached out to the priests again, finding them fasting continuously. He advised them to stop, which they did, and the turbulence ceased. Abba Libanos is said to have died on December 8th.

Mummies have been found at the Monastery of Debre Libanos, some speculate one of them is of Abba Libanos himself…

For More Info, this is website is a very informative read

Abba Sehma

Abba Sehma settled southeast of Adwa in a region now called Enda Abba Sehma. While no monastery from the Aksumite times has been found there, his influence remains acknowledged. He died on the 24th of January³⁸.

Conclusion

This period of the Aksumite Empire is often overlooked due to the lack of inscriptions and documented battles. However, it remains significant for the empire’s development of Christianity from the late 4th century to the early 6th century. During these years, the warrior emperor Mehadeyis reigned, and the arrival of the Nine Saints further evangelized Christianity, embedding it deeply into the culture of the Habesha people and the peripheral tribes within the Aksumite Empire. Orthodox Christianity continues to thrive in present-day Eritrea and Ethiopia. This period set the stage for the rise of Emperor Kaleb, the most renowned Aksumite emperor, who led the first known crusade in the region against the Jewish Himyarite Kingdom, which was persecuting Christians across the Red Sea. I will explore this in-depth in the next article.

The following was found in Berenice, Egypt in the 4th Century AD….

Bibliography

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