Introduction

Emperor Kaleb (also known as Ellsebaas or Hellesthaeos in Greek sources), or Ella Asbeha indigenously, ascended to the throne around 510 AD, succeeding his father Tazena. During his reign, he would crush rebellions throughout his empire, with the most infamous being the Himyarite rebellion by King Dhu Nuwas.

Before Emperor Kaleb’s ascension to the throne, his father Tazena, also known as Ousanas II, Ousas, or Ousanas, ruled from the late 5th century to the early 6th century AD (circa 480 AD – 510 AD)¹. Unfortunately, not much is known about Tazena’s reign. However, historian Sergew Hable Selassie mentions a manuscript referencing Tazena and an expedition to South Arabia². Although the manuscript refers to the destination as “India,” scholars believe this likely means South Arabia. During that time, “India” was an interchangeable term used to identify regions in southern Arabia, the Ethiopian highlands, and India itself.

An expedition to South Arabia prior to Emperor Kaleb’s rule is plausible. As explored in other articles, the Aksumites were heavily involved in the geopolitical affairs of South Arabia, particularly in the 3rd century AD during the reign of GDRT and his predecessors. Furthermore, coins referencing Ousas (Tazena) have been found in Al-Madhariba (near Aden, a port in South Yemen), supporting the notion of Aksumite presence in the region³.

Aksumite Geo-Political Situation – Beginning Of Kaleb’s Reign

During the reign of Emperor Kaleb, the Aksumite Empire extended from the Beja territories in the north (modern-day eastern Sudan, near Suakin and further north) to Barbaria in the south (modern-day Somaliland). This expansive reach is supported by the writings of Cosmas Indicopleustes, a 6th-century merchant and explorer who visited Adulis and documented the geopolitical landscape of the time. Further evidence comes from an inscription attributed to Emperor Kaleb, which explicitly lists the territories under his sovereignty. The inscription reads as follows:

From this inscription, we can discern that Emperor Kaleb asserted his rule over several regions and peoples. These include the Kasu (Kushites in present-day Sudan), Raydan (a term used by Himyarite kings to denote their territory), and Saba (a historical region within the Himyarite Kingdom, where the ancient Sabaean civilization once thrived, despite being defunct by the 6th century AD). Additionally, Salhen, mentioned as the site of a palace during the reign of Aksumite King GDRT, is also included. The inscription references “Yemenites,” a collective term for the various tribes inhabiting Yemen, and Tihamat, the coastal area along southern Saudi Arabia and northern Yemen. The mention of Rabam likely pertains to another Arabian tribe or region, although the exact location remains uncertain. The Bega refers to the Beja people of eastern Sudan, the Noba to the Nubians of central Sudan, and the Arabites as a general term for the tribes of central Arabia.

Control Of Barbaria

However, the grand claims made by Emperor Kaleb alone do not constitute conclusive evidence, as such proclamations could easily be exaggerated or fabricated. Nevertheless, further corroboration comes from the writings of Cosmas Indicopleustes in his book Christian Topography, where he describes the regions under Aksumite control. Cosmas provides various excerpts detailing the areas ruled by the Aksumites, lending additional credibility to the claims of Emperor Kaleb’s expansive rule. Here is an example:

In this excerpt, Cosmas Indicopleustes discusses the inscriptions on the Throne of Adulis, highlighting his firsthand travels to both Sasu and Barbaria. He notes that these regions are currently within the territory referred to as “Ethiopia,” a term the Greeks used to describe the Aksumite Empire. Cosmas also mentions that slaves from these areas were sold by Aksumite merchants, indicating active trade between these regions & proving Kaleb had suzerainty over these lands. Additionally, he describes the Semen Mountains, which were used as a prison colony for those who had been exiled.

Control Of The Beja

In this excerpt, Cosmas Indicopleustes describes how emerald stones were procured from mines in the Beja regions by the Aksumites and subsequently traded with Indians, who prized them for their beauty and used them in their crowns. This account provides evidence that the Beja territories were under Aksumite dominion during the reign of Emperor Kaleb.

Emperor Kaleb – Early Reign

Rebellion In Matara

Early in Kaleb’s reign, he undertook a significant expedition against the Belew Kelew, a subgroup of the Beja people who inhabited parts of what is now Eritrea, with Matara being a crucial city, possibly their capital⁴.

Historian Sergew Hable Selassie states, that in the manuscript Gedle Sadqan, insights into the Belew Kelew are provided. This manuscript details the history of the Sadqan, Orthodox missionaries from Rome, distinct from the Nine Saints of Rome mentioned in previous articles. It describes the Belew Kelew as an independent nation during Kaleb’s early reign, possessing their own political system, stone houses, and a standing army. However, they had not yet converted to Christianity. The Sadqan attempted to evangelize in the region, but their efforts were met with resistance, leading to the massacre of many missionaries. This prompted Emperor Kaleb to intervene militarily to address the situation.

Kalebs First Expedition To South Arabia

Before the infamous crusade in 525 AD, another significant invasion occurred around 518 AD when Emperor Kaleb and his Aksumite forces, led by General Hayyan, launched an expedition into Himyar. The purpose of this invasion was to reinstate Aksumite suzerainty, which might have collapsed between the reigns of Ousanas and Kaleb, possibly due to a rebellion. This invasion was successful and resulted in the installation of a puppet ruler, Ma’dikarib Ya’fur, in Himyar⁵. Following the victory, Kaleb ordered an inscription to be written, proclaiming:

The Himyarite Rebellion

Around 512/522 AD, the Himyarite puppet king Ma’dikarib Ya’fur died, leading Emperor Kaleb to crown Yusuf As’ar Yath’ar, also known as Dhu Nuwas in Arabic. However, by the autumn of 522 AD, Dhu Nuwas had rebelled and converted to Judaism⁶. One of his first targets was Zafar, the capital of the Himyarite kingdom and a walled city. As previously discussed, the Aksumites had maintained a presence in Zafar since the early 3rd century AD during the reign of GDRT. By the early 6th century AD, Zafar housed a significant Christian population.

Dhu Nuwas aimed to strike at the heart of Christianity and Aksumite power in the region. However, besieging Zafar proved difficult due to its strong defences and the combined Aksumite garrisons. To overcome this, Dhu Nuwas devised a deceptive plan. According to historian Sergew Hable Selassie, he sent letters to the city’s inhabitants, promising no harm if they opened the gates and surrendered without a fight. To bolster his deception, he sent letters to Christian priests⁷.

Despite his efforts, the inhabitants and the Aksumite garrison remained wary. They dispatched a contingent of 300 men, led by the town’s governor, B’BW, to Dhu Nuwas’s encampment outside the city. Initially, the delegation was received with hospitality, and provided with food and drink. However, at nightfall, while they slept, they were all massacred. Tradition holds that Dhu Nuwas’s soldiers each brought back a head, and Dhu Nuwas himself counted all 300 to ensure none had escaped⁸.

The Massacre at Zafar

After the initial massacre, Dhu Nuwas and his army proceeded to the city of Zafar. In a brutal and gruesome act, they pillaged the city and massacred its inhabitants. One particularly horrific event occurred when Dhu Nuwas’ forces locked over 280 Christians in a church and set it ablaze, burning them alive⁹. This act was not only an attempt to eliminate the Christian population but also to instil fear and demonstrate his ruthless power.

The Expedition to Najran

Following the atrocities in Zafar, Dhu Nuwas pushed his military campaign northwards, reaching the city of Najran1¹⁰. Historically, Najran had experienced fluctuating political alliances since the time of the Aksumite king GDRT, at times falling under Aksumite suzerainty, and at other times aligning with the kingdoms of Saba or Himyar. By the 6th century AD, Najran had become a significant centre of Christianity in southern Arabia. Its strategic northern location made it a frequent stop for Christians from the Mediterranean who visited and sometimes stayed in Najran.

The Deceits

Like Zafar, Najran was well-fortified, with walls and an Aksumite garrison stationed there, making a direct siege a daunting task for Dhu Nuwas. Resorting to deceit, Dhu Nuwas sent a letter to the head priest of Najran, Harith (also known as Arethas), claiming he needed assistance against rebellious forces. Unaware of the massacre in Zafar and still believing Dhu Nuwas to be a loyal subject of Emperor Kaleb, the Aksumite forces in Najran decided to aid him1¹¹.

The Uncovering of the Deception

As the Aksumite forces journeyed out of Najran to meet Dhu Nuwas, a passerby inquired about their destination. Upon learning of their intentions, the passerby informed them of the massacre in Zafar. Realizing the deception, the Aksumite forces immediately returned to Najran1¹².

The Siege of Najran

Frustrated by his failed deceit, Dhu Nuwas laid siege to Najran. The siege resulted in significant destruction of the land surrounding the city. As a final tactic, Dhu Nuwas sent a letter to the city’s inhabitants, offering forgiveness to all who had rebelled if they surrendered. He threatened complete genocide and total destruction if they refused.

The inhabitants of Najran, desperate to avoid further bloodshed, sent a delegation of around 150 people to negotiate with Dhu Nuwas. Upon reaching his camp, the delegation was forced to renounce their Christian faith. When they refused, they were all killed¹³.

Possibly due to confusion regarding the fate of the delegation, Dhu Nuwas’ army managed to enter the city. However, it quickly became apparent that no agreement had been reached. Dhu Nuwas’ forces massacred the inhabitants of Najran and burned their churches to the ground, continuing their campaign of terror and religious persecution¹⁴.

Dhu Nuwas’ Rebellion and Its Aftermath

Following Dhu Nuwas’ successful rebellion throughout southern Arabia, approximately 12,500 to 14,000 people were killed, and over 10,000 were captured¹⁵. Dhu Nuwas’ forces carried out widespread persecution, particularly targeting Christian communities. As news of these events spread, it reached the Aksumite capital, Aksum, through various sources.

One notable source was Daur Dhu Thalaban, who had escaped persecution in Narjan. He presented himself at the Aksumite court, bringing with him a harrowing story of the atrocities committed by Dhu Nuwas. To corroborate his account, he also brought a half-burnt copy of the Bible as evidence. Daur Dhu Thalaban appealed to the Aksumite court for assistance and justice against Dhu Nuwas’ crimes¹⁶.

In anticipation of an Aksumite invasion, Dhu Nuwas stationed his army near the coast, ready to defend against any incursions.

Eastern Roman Empire’s Involvement

Emperor Justin I, the ruler of the Eastern Roman Empire and the founder of the Justinian dynasty learned of the persecution of Christians in southern Arabia. The news of these atrocities greatly angered him. Justin, I decided to take action and sent a letter to the Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria, Timothy III. In his letter, Justin I detailed the horrific events and urged Timothy III to communicate this information to Emperor Kaleb of Aksum, urging him to seek justice for the persecuted Christians and even offering to send a contingent of Roman troops to aid him in the journey¹⁷.

Response of the Coptic Patriarch

Timothy III responded promptly by dispatching twelve priests to the Aksumite court. These priests carried Justin I’s letter to Emperor Kaleb. However, upon their arrival, they discovered that Emperor Kaleb was already well-informed about the situation. He had already started mobilizing a larger army and overseeing the construction of ships at the port of Adulis, in preparation to address the crisis in southern Arabia.

Emperor Justin I’s letter to Emperor Kaleb is as follows:

The final sentences not only serve as a veiled threat but also highlight the persistent challenges the Beja posed to the Aksumites. This ominously foreshadows the eventual decline of the Aksumite Empire centuries later, partly due to the Beja invasions from the north. These invasions allowed the Beja to gain control over large portions of what is now modern-day Eritrea, contributing significantly to the empire’s downfall.

Emperor Kalebs’s Invasion

Aksumite Preparations in Adulis

Before the invasion, Emperor Kaleb gave specific instructions to the governor of Adulis to inscribe historic records on the Throne of Adulis and the Stele situated behind it. These inscriptions were meant to recount the battles and invasions of Kaleb’s predecessors, serving as a source of inspiration. Cosmas Indicopleustes, a 6th-century merchant & traveller, was tasked with inscribing both monuments, with the help of his assistant Menas.

The Throne & The Stele were covered in detail in previous articles.

Emperor Kaleb’s Visit to Abba Pantelewon

Before setting sail for the invasion, Emperor Kaleb visited Abba Pantelewon in his monastery. During this visit, Abba Pantelewon provided Emperor Kaleb with valuable advice and prayers, further strengthening his resolve for the upcoming campaign¹⁸. Specifically, the interaction went as follows:

Emperor Kaleb’s Army

Emperor Kaleb had ordered 60-70 large ships and over 100 small ships to be built at Adulis for the upcoming crusade. These ships were modelled after those from India, fifteen from Elath in the Gulf of Aqaba, twenty from Clysma in the Gulf of Suez, seven from Iotabe, an island off Tiran (an Island Between Egypt and Saudia Arabia in the Sinai Peninsula), two from Berenice, seven from Pharasan in Persia, and nine from India. These ships, which were originally for commercial purposes, were repurposed to transport his army to Himyar¹⁹. He embarked on the journey from the port of Gabaza, near the port city of Adulis. In total, his fleet comprised over 200 ships. His army totalled around 120,000 soldiers²⁰. Before the main expedition, a smaller army of 15,000 soldiers (mostly consisting of Somalis from barberia) was set to sail and land in Saba in the south. However, this expedition failed, and most of the soldiers perished²¹.

The Invasion

To prepare for the imminent invasion by sea, Dhu Nuwas blocked port entrances with chains and stationed his army along the coast. Emperor Kaleb’s ships arrived at the coast near Mokha (modern-day Mocha in Yemen), the main port of Dhu Nuwas’ South Arabia at the time. However, they couldn’t land immediately. Emperor Kaleb managed a smaller section of his army and went with 12 ships separately further north, successfully landing. With Dhu Nuwas now under the threat of two attacks from the split Aksumite army, he repositioned his forces back to the mountains and away from the coast²².

Emperor Kaleb reached Zafar and besieged the city, successfully capturing it and appointing Sumuyafa Ashwa as the king of South Arabia. Sumuyafa Ashwa was Himyarite by birth but Christian and a descendant of a local prince. Before his departure from South Arabia Klaeb ordered for a large inscription to be placed, which celebrated his war²³.

According to South Arabian tradition, the Aksumites seized several key cities following their victory. These included:

• The capital city of Zafar
• The cities of San’a and Marib
• Two cities in the Jawf region (North Yemen, in modern-day: Al Jawf Governorate of Yemen)
• The city of Narjan

Persecution Of Himyarites

During the invasion of Himyar, many Jewish inhabitants were killed, and their homes were looted and destroyed. However, The Book of the Himyarites, a text written by Syrian Orthodox priests that chronicles the massacre of Christians in Himyar and Emperor Kaleb’s subsequent invasion, includes a fascinating account of how some Jewish Himyarites managed to avoid persecution. According to the text, they tattooed the Christian symbol of the cross on their hands, a gesture Emperor Kaleb interpreted as a sign of repentance. The inscription from this account reads as follows:

Emperor Kaleb’s Campaigns in South Arabia

Guerrilla Warfare & Final Victory

Following his initial victory, Dhu Nuwas retreated to the mountains, engaging in guerrilla warfare against the Ethiopian garrisons. These tactics led Emperor Kaleb to prepare for another military expedition in 525 AD. Kaleb’s forces landed in South Arabia once more, surrounding Dhu Nuwas from both the coastal Aksumite forces and the garrisons stationed inland. Faced with this overwhelming opposition, Dhu Nuwas fled and ultimately committed suicide, tradition states by drowning in the sea²⁴.

Finally, Kaleb appointed General Abreha, who had successfully led the second invasion of Himyar and had helped defeat Dhu Nuwas, as commander of the Aksumite Garrison in Himyar.

Conclusion

Emperor Kaleb’s invasion of Himyar marked the pinnacle of the Aksumite Empire and signalled the beginning of its later stages. This campaign showcased the full extent of Aksumite military power, including the ability to field over 100,000 soldiers and deploy more than 200 ships, demonstrating both formidable ground forces and naval capabilities. The invasion also underscored the central role of Christianity in the empire, reflecting the religious fervour that had grown since the reign of Ezana. This culminated in what can be described as a holy crusade against the Jewish King Dhu Nuwas, who had brutally massacred Christians in his territory.

Furthermore, this episode introduces us to Abreha, a general who played a key role in the Aksumite campaign against Himyar. Now promoted to commander of the large Aksumite garrison stationed in Himyar, Abreha dreamt of even more power which would eventually bring him into conflict with the Emperor himself.

Additional Readings

• Martyrs of Najran by Anthony Alcock: Provides a translation of a primary source detailing the events in Himyar during the reign of Dhu Nuwas and the Aksumite Invasion that proceeded.
• The book of the Himyarites: fragments of a hitherto unknown Syriac work. (Lund : C.W.K. Gleerup, 1924) – Provides another translation, this time by Syrian monks of the events that occurred during Emperor Kaleb’s reign.

In Modern Day Yemen, at Marib we find an inscription by Emperor Kaleb proclaiming victory²⁵:

Biblography

1. Ancient And Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270, pg 123 ↩︎
2. Ancient And Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270, pg 123 ↩︎
3. African Zion : The Sacred Art of Ethiopia, pg 111 ↩︎
4. Ancient And Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270, pg 125 ↩︎
5. The Throne of Adulis: Red Sea Wars on the Eve of Islam, pg 95 ↩︎
6. Arabs and Empires Before Islam, pg 147. ↩︎
7. Ancient And Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270, pg 128 ↩︎
8. Ancient And Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270, pg 129 ↩︎
9. Ancient And Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270, pg 128 ↩︎
10. Ancient And Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270, pg 129 ↩︎
11. Ancient And Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270, pg 129 ↩︎
12. Ancient And Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270, pg 129 ↩︎
13. Ancient And Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270, pg 129 ↩︎
14. Ancient And Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270, pg 129 ↩︎
15. Ancient And Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270, pg 130 ↩︎
16. Ancient And Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270, pg 131 ↩︎
17. The Throne of Adulis: Red Sea Wars on the Eve of Islam, pg 97 ↩︎
18. Martyrs of Najran by Anthony Alcock, Chapter 7, Paragraph 31 ↩︎
19. Ancient And Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270, pg 132 ↩︎
20. The Throne of Adulis: Red Sea Wars on the Eve of Islam, pg 97 ↩︎
21. The Throne of Adulis: Red Sea Wars on the Eve of Islam, pg 97 ↩︎
22. Ancient And Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270, pg 133 ↩︎
23. Ancient And Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270, pg 133 ↩︎
24. Ancient And Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270, pg 135 ↩︎
25. The Throne of Adulis: Red Sea Wars on the Eve of Islam, pg 102 ↩︎